Ernst, E. (Ed). (2001) The Desktop Guide to Complementary and Alternative Medicine. New York: Mosby.

Feltrow, C. and Avila, J. (2004) Professional's Handbook of Complementary and Alternative Medicines. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Rotblatt, M. and Ziment, I. (2002) Evidence-Based Herbal Medicine. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc.

Weed, S. (1986) Wide Woman Herbal for the Childbearing Year. Woodstock, New York: Ash Tree Publishing.

Aloe Vera	Poultice from fresh plant used to decrease pain of perineal tears.	Herbalists recommend avoidance in patients with varicosities. Aloe said to make them worse.
Anise Seed	Used to prevent morning sickness. Also used as a "tonic" for the stomach and to aid digestion.	Avoid use in pregnancy - estrogenic effects. Adverse reactions have included seizures, nausea and vomiting, pulmonary edema, pseudo-Conn's syndrome (hypermineraliocoricisum) and hypersensitivity reactions.
Black Cohosh	Has vascular and estrogenic activity. Used primarily for GYN conditions, including dysmenorrhea, osteoporosis and menopausal symptoms. Also used to stimulate the onset of labor.	Not recommended in pregnancy. May cause miscarriage.
Black Haw Root Bark	Used to prevent miscarriage. Uterine relaxant and general antispasmodic.	No studies in pregnancy. Not recommended due to lack of evidence. Monitor coagulation studies.
Blessed Thistle	Used to treat postpartum depression, steady emotions. Also used to stimulate lactation and relieve menstrual symptoms.	Potential adverse effects include contact dermatitis, nausea and vomiting. Not recommended in pregnancy, but no specific concerns cited. No clinical studies on use in pregnancy.
Blue Cohosh	Stimulates smooth muscle in coronary vessels, small intestine and uterus. Has been used to initiate labor. Often used in combination with Black Cohosh.	Considered contraindicated in pregnancy due to teratogenic and uterine stimulating effects. Two cases of neonatal heart failure reported.
Burdock	Used to steady emotions. Also reported to have antimicrobial, diuretic and antipyretic effects. Used in arthritis, cystitis, gout, hemorrhoids and some skin disorders.	May increase hypoglycemic effects of insulin. Not recommended in pregnancy, especially in first trimester.
Catnip	Used to prevent retained placenta and to treat after pains. Also used to prevent neonatal jaundice. Has been used as treatment for insomnia and restlessness.	Avoid in pregnancy due to uterine stimulant effects. May cause headache and malaise.
Chamomile	Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, antibacterial. Used for GI complaints, skin inflammation, anxiety and insomnia.	Safety in pregnancy not documented. Animal studies have reported low birth weight and miscarriage associated with high doses.
Comfrey	Leaves used to help with engorgement and sore nipples.
Cranberry	Used in the prevention of urinary tract infection.	No contraindication. Consider sugarless versions for diabetic patients or patients who do not need excess calories.
Dandelion Root	Source of calcium, potassium and folic acid. Used in the prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia. Considered helpful in increasing and sustaining lactation. Said to strengthen fetal liver and prevent neonatal jaundice. Believed to have antirheumatic, diuretic, laxative and bile-stimulating effects.	Potential adverse effects in pregnancy are unknown.
Echinacea	Used for treatment of acute viral URI. Studies of efficacy have been conflicting.	"Best avoided" in pregnancy (Rotblatt and Ziment, 2002). One cohort study has shown no increased risk.
Evening Primrose Oil	Contains gamma-linoleic acid (a fatty acid), which is a precursor to arachidonic acid, which is a precursor to prostaglandin. Used to promote cervical ripening for labor. One retrospective study found no benefit from taking EPO to facilitate labor (Dove and Johnson, 1999). Also used for mastalgia, GI disorders, neuralgia and asthma.	Frequently listed as contraindicated, as few data exist to document safety. However, no reports of adverse effects have been found. Do not use with known seizure disorders or in individuals exhibiting mania.
False Unicorn Root	"Uterine tonic." Believed to have beneficial effect on kidneys, bladder and ovaries. Used to improve fertility. Used to prevent miscarriage, particularly if the cervix is "too loose."	Herbalists say to avoid in late pregnancy - "too powerful." No documentation of efficacy. Recommend avoidance in pregnancy due to lack of evidence, but no specific concerns cited.
Fennel	Used to prevent morning sickness. Also used as a "tonic" for the stomach and to aid digestion. Used postpartum to stimulate lactation and ease after pains.	Avoid in pregnancy due to estrogenic activity. May be confused with poison hemlock, which can be fatal. Caution not to harvest own fennel.
Fenugreek	Used for lowering blood glucose. Has also been used to stimulate milk production in lactating women, although efficacy has not been documented.	No untoward effects have been reported.
Garlic	Used in diet to prevent varicosities. Inserted in rectum overnight to decrease swelling of hemorrhoids. Thought to help lower blood pressure. Possible antimicrobial, antithrombotic, lipid-lowering and antitumorigenic effects.	Not to be used with anticoagulants. Not encouraged in therapeutic levels in pregnancy due to possible oxytocic effects.
Ginger	Used for nausea and motion sickness.	Use in pregnancy is controversial. "Ginger extract and isolated ginger constituents have mutagenic and antimutagenic properties" in in vitro testing (Rotblatt and Ziment, 2002). Listed as contraindicated by Fetrow & Avila (2004), but studies cited that tested its use for hyperemesis gravidarum. Prudent to avoid high doses in early pregnancy.
Hawthorne Berry	Mechanism of action similar to digitalis. Used to "strengthen" heart. Has also been used to lower blood pressure in pregnancy. Recommended for essential rather than gestational hypertension.	Contraindicated in pregnancy. Can cause hypotension or arrhythmias. Should be used only under medical supervision.
Kava Kava	Used for mild anxiety and stress.	Not recommended in pregnancy and lactation due to lack of data.
Lemon Balm	Used to treat depression, melancholia and hysteria. Has also been used to treat headache and vertigo in pregnancy.	Avoid in pregnancy due to potential of caffeic acid and the glycoside found in lemon balm to inhibit protein synthesis.
Lobelia	Similar to, but less powerful than nicotine. Used to prevent miscarriage in a "weak" pregnancy; to prevent miscarriage in a healthy pregnancy. Used to treat bleeding near term. Used to relive pain in early labor. Used for to treat "shock." Has been used as a smoking deterrent.	Similar to, but less powerful than nicotine. Used to prevent miscarriage in a "weak" pregnancy; to prevent miscarriage in a healthy pregnancy. Used to treat bleeding near term. Used to relive pain in early labor. Used for to treat "shock." Has been used as a smoking deterrent. Contraindicated in pregnant or breastfeeding women due to nicotine-like effects. Adverse reactions have included: dizziness, seizures, tremor, decreased heart rate, hypertension, palpitations, nausea, respiratory depression or stimulation. Avoid especially if patient smokes.
Motherwort	Used to alleviate pain in early labor. Used to treat stress, strengthen heart, allay shock.	May increase bleeding in repeated doses. Not recommended in pregnancy due to potential uterotonic and prostaglandin synthesis actions.
Mullein	Used as poultice for varicose veins. Also believed to have antitussive, demulcent and expectorant effects. Has been used in management of pain from otitis media.	Primary adverse effect is contact dermatitis. Can cause sedation. Potential adverse effects in pregnancy are unknown.
Nettle	Uterotonic and diuretic. Used to improve fertility, aid varicosities and prevent bladder infections. Contains vitamins A, C, D, K, calcium, potassium, iron and sulphur.	Contraindicated in pregnancy due to uterotonic and diuretic effects.
Oatstraw	Used to "strengthen capillaries" and prevent varicosities.
Papaya	Used to prevent heartburn in pregnancy. Also used as debriding agent in chronic skin ulcers.	Potential adverse effects in pregnancy unknown.
Passion Flower	Used to treat pain; also an anxiolytic and sedative. Used to treat "nervousness."	Potential adverse reactions include CNS depression, hypersensitivity vasculitis and rhinitis. Not recommended in pregnancy, but no specific concern cited.
Peppermint/Spearmint	Used as a morning sickness remedy, a tea to provide "energy."	Some consider contraindicated in pregnancy because it may stimulate menstrual flow.
Raspberry Tea	Has anti-inflammatory, diuretic, expectorant and oxytocic properties. Has been used to increase fertility, prevent miscarriage and hemorrhage, ease morning sickness, reduce pain in labor and encourage more effective contractions.	Use cautiously with diabetics.
Sarsaparilla	Used to help balance hormones, steady emotions. Also used in rheumatism, psoriasis and renal disease.	Potential adverse effects unknown in pregnancy.
Scullcap	Used to promote sleep. Believed to have anticonvulsant and sedative effects.	Effects undocumented in pregnancy.
Shepherd's Purse	Source of calcium. Used to control bleeding after miscarriage and labor. Reputed to have antihemorrhagic and utinary antiseptic effects. Has been used to treat diarrhea, hematemesis, hematuria, menorrhagia and other bleeding disorders.	Adverse side effects can include atazi, sedation, hypotension, myhdriasis and hypothyroidism. Potential adverse effects specific to pregnancy unknown.
Slippery Elm	Used to treat heartburn. Also used as antitussive and skin emollient.	Potential adverse effects in pregnancy unknown.
Spirulina	Used to supplement protein and mineral levels in effort to prevent pre-eclampsia. Has high nutrient value and possible appetite suppressant qualities. Has been used as a weight loss aid.	Used to supplement protein and mineral levels in effort to prevent pre-eclampsia. Has high nutrient value and possible appetite suppressant qualities. Has been used as a weight loss aid. May be used cautiously in pregnant women. Has high mercury content. Daily use can exceed safety recommendations.
Squaw Vine	Used as a pregnancy "tonic." Used as a uterine stimulant in labor.	Contraindicated in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. Avoid in patients with compromised liver function.
St. John's Wort	Used for mild to moderate depression.	Do not take with prescribed medications. Many drug interactions.
Uva Ursi (also known as Bearberry)	Used to treat bladder infections. Has diuretic properties.	Not recommended in pregnancy, likely due to diuretic effects. Adverse effects in large doses, including cardiovascular collapse, seizures, tinnitus and vomiting.
Valerian	Used for insomnia.	Mutagenic in vitro. No reports of teratogenicity in animals. Not advised in pregnancy and lactation.
Wheat Grass (also known as Couch Grass)	Used to treat backache. Has diuretic and demulcent properties.	May become contaminated with ergot. Avoid in pregnancy.
Wild Yam Root	Used to treat nausea and vomiting of pregnancy and to prevent threatened miscarriage.	DHEA (steroid hormone) is a component of wild yam root. Wild yam root was original source of hormones for oral contraceptives. Avoid in pregnancy - may cause masculization of fetus.
Witch Hazel	Used for anal and vaginal itching, postepisiotomy pain and hemorrhoids.	No reports of adverse effects when used topically. Can be hepatotoxic when taken orally.
Yarrow	Used as poultice for varicose veins or as ointment for hemorrhoids. Also used as backup treatment for urinary tract infection and as a sitz bath for perineal pain. Also used for sore nipples.	Primary adverse effect is contact dermatitis. Potential adverse effects in pregnancy are unknown.
Yellow Dock	Used as ointment for hemorrhoids. Used as source of iron. As been used as astringent and cathartic.	Contraindicated in pregnancy due to uterine stimulant effects of anthraquinones contained in Yellow Dock. May result in miscarriage.