The purpose of this seminar is to review basic dental radiologic concepts and to learn to apply them in endodontic diagnosis and treatment.

SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES: upon completion of this seminar the student will be able to:

• Understand the basics of radiation physics and the effects of  various radiographic factors on the quality of the radiograph.
• Describe reasons for varying horozontal and vertical cone angulations to create shifted images.
• Discuss the Buccal Object Rule (SLOB rule) in detail as it applies to endodontic diagnosis and treatment.
• Discuss the limitations of radiographic interpretation.
• Describe radiographic techniques for locating undiscovered canals or roots in angled working films.
• Discuss alternative imaging technologies as they apply to endodontics.

TEXT REFERENCE: Pathways of the Pulp.ed 9; Cohen, S and Hargreaves, KM, eds. Mosby, 2006. pgs 21-23.

1961
* Bender IB, Seltzer S.  Roentgenographic and direct observation of experimental lesions in bone: I.  JADA 62:26. 1961.
           
* Bender IB, Seltzer S.  Roentgenographic and direct observation of experimental lesions in bone: II.  JADA 62:82. 1961.

1972
* Goldman M, Pearson AH, Darzenta N.  Endodontic success--who's reading the radiograph?  Oral Surg 33:432. 1972.

1973
Walton RE.  Endodontic radiology technics.  Dent Radiog Photog 46:51. 1973.

1974
*Slowey RR.  Radiographic aids in the detection of extra root canals. Oral Surg 37:762. 1974.

*Shoha RR, Dowson J, Richards AG.  Radiographic interpretation of experimentally produced bony lesions.  Oral Surg 38:294. 1974.

1976
*Heling B & Karmon A. Determinig tooth length with bisecting the angle radiographs. J British Endod Society 2:75. September, 1976.

1982
* Bender IB.  Factors influencing the radiographic appearance of bony lesions. J Endodon 4:161. 1982.

1983
* Gelfand M, Sunderman EJ, Goldman M.  Reliability of radiographical interpretations.  J Endodon 9:71. 1983.

* Antrim AA.  Reading the radiograph: a comparison of viewing techniques. J Endodon 9:502. 1983.
           
1986
* Lee SJ, Messer HH.  Radiographic appearance of artificially prepared periapical lesions confined to cancellous bone.  Int Endo J 19:64. 1986.
 
1987
* Kersten HW, Wesselink PR, Van Velzen SK.  The diagnostic reliability of the buccal radiograph after root canal filling.  Int Endo J 20:20. 1987.

1990
* Kuyk JK, Walton RE.  Comparison of the radiographic appearance of root canal size to its actual diameter.  J Endodon 16:528. 1990.

* Jarvis WD, Pifer RG, Grifin JA, Skidmore AE.  Evaluation of image quality in individual films of double film packets.  Oral Surg 69:764. 1990.

Danforth RA, Torabinejad M.  Estimated radiation risks associated with endodontic radiography.  Endod Dent Traumatol 6:21. 1990.

1994
* Yokota ET, Miles DA, Newton CW, Brown CE.  Interpretation of periapical lesions using radiovisiography.  J Endodon 20:490-494. 1994.

1997
Fava LRG, Dummer PMH.  Periapical radiographic techniques during endodontic diagnosis and treatment.  Int Endodon J 30:250-261.  1997.

* Forsberg J, Halse A.  Periapical radiolucencies as evaluated by bisecting-angle and paralleling radiographic techniques.  Int Endodon J 30:115-123.  1997.

2002
Molven O, Halse A, Fristad I. Long term reliability and observer comparisons in the radiographic diagnosis of periapical disease. Int Endo J 35:142. February, 2002.
           
2005
Woolhiser GA, Brand JW, Hoen MM, Geist JR, Pikula MS, Pink FE. Accuracy of film-based, digital, and enhanced digital images for endodontic length determination.  OOOO&E 99:499. April, 2005.

Folk RB, Thorpe JR, McClanahan SB, Johnson JD, Strother JM. Comparison of two different direct digital radiography systems for the ability to detect artificially prepared periapical lesions. J Endod 31:304. April, 2005.

Akdeniz BG & Soğur E. An ex vivo comparison of conventional and digital radiography for perceived image quality of root fillings. Int Endo J 38:397. 2005.

Van Der Stelt PF. Filmless imaging; the uses of digital radiography in dental practice. J Am Dent Ass 136:1379. October, 2005.

2007
Nair MK, & Nair UP. Digital and advanced imaging in Endodontics: A review. J Endod 33:1. January, 2007.                       
           
Optional
Shawkat AH et al. evaluation of the utilization of the supine position in intraoral radiology. Oral Surg 43:963. 1977.
           
* Richards AG.  The buccal object rule.  Dent Radiog Photog 53:37. 1980.
           
* Thunthy KH, Weinberg R.  Comparison of films processed in automatic and manual processors.  Oral Surg 50:479. 1980.

Bhakdinaronk A, Mason-Hing LR. Effect of radiographic technique upon prediction of tooth length in intraoral radiology. Oral Surg 51:100. 1981.

Thunthy KH, Wineburg R. Sensitometric comparison of dental films of groups D and E. Oral Surg 54:250. 1982.

*Girsch WJ, Matteson SR, McKee MN.  An evaluation of Kodak Ektaspeed periapical film for use in endodontics.  J Endodon 9:282. 1983.

Leff GS, Schwartz SF, del Rio CE.  Xeroradiographic interpretation of experimentally induced jaw lesions.  J Endodon 10:188. 1984.

Zakariasen et al. Endodontic recall radiographs: how reliable is our interpretation of endodontic success or failure and what factors affect reliability? Oral Surg 57:343. 1984.

X-rays in Dentistry.  Eastman Kodak Co.; Rochester, NY. p4-22. 1985.

Andreasen et al. Radiologic assessment of simulated root resorption cavities.                 Endod Dent Traumatol 3:21. 1987.

Shearer et al. Radiovisiography for imaging root canals: an in vitro comparison with conventional radiography. Quint Int 21:789. 1990.

Tyndall DA, Kapa SF, Bagnell CP.  Digital subtraction radiography for detecting cortical and cancellous bone changes in the periapical region. J Endodon 16:173. 1990.

Tachibana H, Matsumoto K.  Applicability of X-ray computerized tomography in endodontics.  Endod Dent Traumatol 6:16. 1990.

Neaverth EJ, Pantera EA.  Chairside disinfection of radiographs. Oral Surg 71:116-119. 1991.

* Nattress BR, Martin DM.  Predictability of radiographic diagnosis of variations in root canal anatomy in mandibular incisor and premolar teeth. Int Endo J 24:58. 1991.

American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial radiology infection control No Ab guidelines for dental radiographic procedures. Oral Surg 73:248-249. 1992.

Forsberg J, Halse A.  Radiographic simulation of a periapical lesion comparing              the paralleling and the bisecting angle techniques. Int Endodon J 27:133-138. 1994.

* Monahan R, Alder M, Nummikoski P.  Magnetic resonance imaging: practical theory and clinical relevance.  J Amer Dent Assoc 125:998-1002. 1994.

* Geist JR, Gleason MJ.  Densitometric properties of rapid manual processing solutions: abbreviated versus complete rapid processing. J Endodon 21:180-184. 1995.

* Scarfe WC, Fana CR, Farman AG.  Radiographic detection of accessory/lateral canals:use of Radiovisiography and Hypaque.  J Endodon 21:185-190.  1995.

* Tirrell BC, Miles DA, Brown CE, Legan JJ.  Interpretation of chemically created lesions using direct digital imaging.  J Endodon 22:74-78.  1996.

Wallace J, Nair M, Colaco M, Kappa S. A comparative evaluation of the diagnostic efficacy of film and digital sensors for detection of simulated periapical lesion. Oral Surg Ora Med Oral Path Oral Radiol Endod 92:93. July, 2001.

Delano E, Ludlow J, Orstavik D, Tyndall D, Trope M. Comparison  between PAI and quantitative digital radiographic assessment of apical healing after endodontic treatment. Oral Surg Ora Med Oral Path Oral Radiol Endod 92:108. July, 2001.

Friedland B, Faiella R, Bianchi J. Use of rotational tomography for assessing internal resorption. J Endodon 27:797. December, 2001.

Nielsen C. Effect of scenario and experience on interpretation of mach bands. J Endodon 27:687. November, 2001.

Mentes A, Gencoglu N. Canal length evaluation of curved canals by direct digital or conventional radiography. Oral Surg Ora Med Oral Path Oral Radiol Endod 93:88. July, 2002.

Brunton P, Abdeen D, Macfarlane T. The effect of an apex locator on exposure to radiation during endodontic therapy. J Endodon 28:524. July, 2002

Yoshioka T, Kobayashi C, Suda H, Sasaki T. An observation of the healing process of periapical lesions by digital subtraction radiography. J Endodon 28:589. August, 2002.

Halse A, Molven O, Frisatd I. Diagnosing periapical lesions – disagreement and borderline cases. Int Endo J 35:703. 2002.

Siragusa M & McDonnell DJ. Indirect digital images: limit of image compression for diagnosis in endodontics. Int Endo J 35:991. 2002.

Nauom HJ, Love RM, Chandler NP, Herbison P. Effect of X-ray beam angulation and intraradicular contrast medium on radiographic interpretation of lower first molar root canal anatomy. Int Endo J 36:12. 2003.

von Strechow D, Balto K, Stashenko P, Müller R. Three-dimensioal quantitation of periradicular bone destruction by micro-computed tomography. J Endod 29:252. April, 2003.

Nauom HJ, Chandler NP, Love RM. Cinventional versus storage phosphor-plate digital images to visualize the root canal system contrasted with a radiopaque medium. J Endod 29:349. May, 2003.

Kositbowornchai S, Sikam S, Nuansakul R, Thinkhamrop B. Root fracture detection on digital images: effect of the zoom function. Dent Traumatol 19:154. June, 2003.

Sheaffer JC, Eleaser PD, Scheetz JP, Clark SJ, Farman AG. Endodontic measurement accuracy and perceived radiograph quality: Effects of film speed and density. OOOO&E 96:441. October, 2003.

Tagger M & Katz A. Radiopacity of endodontic sealers: development of a new method for direct measurement. J Endod 29:751. November, 2003.

Newman ME & Friedman S. Extraoral radiographic technique: an alternative approach. J Endod 29:419. June, 2003.

Bernstein DI, Clark SJ, Scheetz JP, Farman AG, Rosenson B. Perceived quality of radiographic images after rapid processing of D- and F- speed direct-exposure intraoral x-ray films. OOOO&E 96:486. October, 2003.

Barton DJ, Clark SJ, Eleazer PD, Scheetz JP, Farman, AG. Tuned-aperture computed tomography versus parallax analog and digital radiographic images in detecting second mesiobuccal canals in maxillary first molars. 96:223. August, 2003.

Yoshioka T, Villegas JC, Kobayashi C, Suda H. Radiographic Evaluation of root canal multiplicity in mandibular first premolars. J Endod 30:73. February, 2004.

Li G. Comparative investigation of subjective image quality of digital intraoral radiographs processed with 3 image-processing algorythems. OOOO&E 97:762. June, 2004.

Mikrogeorgis G, Lyroudia K, Molyvdas I, Nikolaidis N, Pitas I. Digital radiograph registration and subtraction: a useful tool for the evaluation of the progress of chronic apical periodontitis.  J Endod 30:513. July, 2004.

Bedford JM, Martin DM, Youngson CC. Assessment of a contrast medium as an adjunct to endodontic radiography. Int Endo J 37:806. 2004.

Jett S, Shrout MK, Mailhot JM, Potter BJ, Borke JL. An evaluation of the origin of trabecula bone patterns using visual and digital image analysis. OOOO&E 98:598. November, 2004.

Camps J, Pommel L, Bukiet F. Evaluation of periapical lesion healing by correction of gray values. J Endod 30:762. November, 2004.

Benjamin SD. Digital radiography: more than meets the eye. Compendium 26:464. June, 2005.
Wenzel A, Kirakevang L-L. High resolution charge-coupled device sensor vs. medium resolution photostimuable phosphor plate digital receptors for detection of root fractures in vitro. Dent Traum21:32. 2005.

Chen S-K, Oviir T, Lin C-H, Leu L-J, Cho B-H, Hollender L. Digital imaging analysis with mathematical morphology and fractal dimension for evaluation of periapical lesions following enddontic treatment. OOOO&E 100:467. October, 2005.

Bhaskaran V, Qualtrough AJE, Ruston VE, Worthington HV, Horner K. A laboratory comparison of three imaging systems for image quality and radiation exposure characteristics. Int Endo J 38:645. 2005.

Ricucci D, Mannocci F, Pitt Ford TR. A study of periapical lesions correlating the presence of a radiopaque lamina with histological findings. OOOO&E 101:389 March, 2006.

Lee S-J, Jang K-H, Spangberg LSW, Kim E, Jung I-Y, Lee C-Y, Kum K-Y. Three-dimensional visualization of a mandibula first molar with three distal roots using computer-aided rapid prototyping. OOOO&E 101:668. May, 2006.

Nakata K, Naitoh M, Izumi M, Inamoto K, Ariji E, Nakamura H. Effectiveness of dental computed tomography in diagnostic imaging of periapical lesion  of each root of a multirooted tooth: a case report. J Endod 32:583. June, 2006.

Radel RT, Goodell GG, McClanahan SB, Cohen ME. In vitro radiographic determination of distances from working length files to root ends comparing Kodak RVG 6000, Schick CDR, and Kodak Insight film. J Endod 32:566. June, 2006.